Table 3 Main shortcomings of impregnated material and spatial repellents

Impregnated Material

Bednets

 • Problems with damage, poor fit, incorrect use, infrequent use, re-drenching

 • Loss of bio-efficacy

 • Lack of understanding, lack of community participation

 • They may not coincide with the insects’ activity cycle

Fabrics/plastics

 • Spray on for short-term visitors’ clothing, not for locals

 • Potential skin irritations

Spatial repellents

Non-electric, electric, emanators, sprays

 • Reduce bites but not disease

 • Impact on non-target species

 • Smell, smoke, irritant

 • Some require electricity

 • Cost of compound replacement

 • Respiratory impact (smoke, insecticide)

Ultrasound and electronic devices, app-devices

 • No evidence of effect